Women in Wartime

The involvement of Australian women in each war is closely connected to their role in society at different times, and the nature of each war.

Australia has been involved in a number of wars including The Boer War (1899–1902), World War I (1914–1918), World War II (1939–1945), The Korean War (1950–1953), The Vietnam War (1962–1972) and The Gulf War (1990–1991).

On the home front, women dealt with the consequences of war—managing children and family responsibilities alone, shortages of resources, as well as their fears for the future, and the grief and trauma of losing loved ones.

Many women were also actively involved as nurses and in other active service duties, and contributed more actively to war efforts through military service. Other Australian women were also closely connected with war through male relatives and friends away on military service.

In World War II, women were actively recruited into jobs that had always been the preserve of men; they worked in factories and shipyards, as members of the Women’s Land Army and as Official War Artists.

Fundraising and support roles

At the outbreak of World War I, the expected role of women was to manage the home and raise children. Women were strongly encouraged to help the war effort by joining voluntary organisations.

Groups active at this time included the Australian Red Cross, the Country Women’s Association, the Women’s Christian Temperance Union, the Australian Women’s National League, the Voluntary Aid Detachment, the Australian Comforts Fund and the Cheer-Up Society.

Paid labour and taking on ‘men’s work’

When World War I started, it was uncommon for many women to have jobs, apart from domestic serving roles. The number of women working outside the home did increase slightly during the war but mostly in food, clothing and printing industry jobs that were already established as female roles.

The idea that a great number of women could take up paid work in place of the men who had gone to war was resisted for a number of reasons. This resistance lasted into World War II, even though ‘women beat a path to the doors of the authorities, begging to be allowed to assist, to help win the war, to give of their talents’. (Adam-Smith, Patsy 1996, Australian Women At War , Penguin Books, Australia, p 5)

By 1942, the tides of war had shifted to Australia’s doorstep and roles changed out of sheer necessity. Australian women entered the workforce in unprecedented numbers and were even allowed to take on ‘men’s work’. These were jobs for the war, not for life. Women were paid at lower rates than men and expected to ‘step down’ and return to home duties after the war.

It’s a man’s job

During World War Two, in Great Britain, North America and Australia and other nations, the vast number of men who were involved in the war meant that, for the first time ever, women were actively recruited into jobs that had always been considered for men. ‘Rosie the Riveter’ was a character used in America during the 1940s to entice women into work in factories and shipyards.

Newsreels and movies of the day show women happily coming to work in the factory each day to make bomb casings, tanks or parachutes and draws similarities between the things women are used to doing (such as filing their nails) with the work they do in the factory (such as filing the inside of munitions casings). Similar recruitment programs were used to great effect in Australia.

At the end of the war, when women were expected to give up their jobs for men who returned home from overseas conflicts, this was often a difficult transition. Many women had enjoyed participating in the workforce. The 1950s saw a dramatic change in the way women’s roles were defined, as females were encouraged back into the home and their traditional roles of wives and mothers reinforced and encouraged.

Australian Women’s Land Army

The Australian Women’s Land Army (AWLA) was established in July 1942, in response to labour shortages in country areas. The Women’s Land Army recruited women to work on farms where there were no men left to do the hard labour that was traditionally assigned to men.

AWLA was not considered a military service and never included benefits such as the pensions, deferred pay and bonuses, which were available to those women who joined WRANS, AWAS and others. By 1944 the Australian Women’s Land Army (AWLA) had around 3000 members.

Taking personal action

The unique war experiences of some Australian women came from their own initiative and special circumstances. Travelling in England at the beginning of World War I, Olive King went on to work as an ambulance driver in France and Salonika. The suffragette and pacifist Vida Goldstein founded the Women’s Peace Army in 1915. Vera Deakin established a Wounded and Missing Enquiry Bureau in Cairo in 1915, and in London in 1916, providing a vital service for Australian families in these countries.

During World War I, some women threw themselves into campaigns in favour of conscription, others opposed it vehemently. In the years following World War II, the war stories of extraordinary Australian women such as Nancy Wake, Jessie Traill, Vivian Bullwinkel and many others have emerged.

In a different Australia at the time of later conflicts, women have joined with others to voice their opposition to war through marches, rallies and petitions.

Women bearing witness to war – artists and writers

Art and writing can offer a window into some wartime experiences. Sybil Craig, Nora Heysen and Stella Bowen were among the Official War Artists appointed by the Australian government during World War II and their impressions of war are among many artworks held at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra.

Letters, diaries and other written accounts convey women’s experiences of various conflicts. Betty Jeffrey’s book White Coolies (1945) and Jessie Simons’s book While History Passed (1954, reissued in 1985 as In Japanese Hands ) are personal accounts of being held prisoner-of-war by the Japanese after the fall of Singapore in World War II. Susan Terry’s book House of Love: Life in a Vietnamese Hospital (1966) reflects her experiences as a civilian nurse during the Vietnam War.

Recognising Australian women’s war efforts

In World War I and World War II, the wives or female relatives of Australian servicemen received medals to show their personal connection with military efforts.

The type of work women did was less of an issue when Australia became involved in the Vietnam, Korean and Gulf Wars. Australian society had changed and these conflicts had a different impact on the day-to-day life of most people.

Sources:

• https://info.australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/women-in-wartime

Australian Army Medical Women’s Service (AAMWS) (1942 – 1951)

From: December 1942 To: 1951

Occupations: Armed services organization

Dental mechanic; dispenser, laboratory assistant; radiographer; senior cook; telephonist (monitress); clerk; cook; operating theatre assistant; dental clerk; dental orderly; nursing orderly; refrigerator operator or sick quarters attendant; store-keeper Grade 1; store assistant; typist; telephonist; kitchen hand; messwoman; office orderly; waitress; ward orderly

Summary

The Australian Army Medical Women’s Service (AAMWS) was established in December 1942. At that stage it was decided to distinguish between Voluntary Aid Detachments, whose governing body was the Joint State Council in each State and the Joint Central Council (the Commonwealth authority), and Voluntary Aids who were serving at Military Hospitals on a full-time basis under Army control.

Author Patsy Adam-Smith, herself a member of the Voluntary Aid Detachment (VAD) who joined the AAMWS, states in Australian Women at War:

From that date [December 1942], the Service’s officers and soldiers were subject to military law and to the provisions of the Defence Act, the Army Act and the Rules of Procedure…’The majority of the original recruits for the AAMWS were drawn from the ranks of the Voluntary Aid Detachments, and the experience they already had was of great benefit in their work in military hospitals, both home and overseas.’

In July 1949 the Australian Army Medical Women’s Service became part of the Regular Army. Two years later The Service was disbanded and its duties were incorporated into the Royal Australian Army Nursing Corps.

Key Events

December 1942 – February 1951: The Australian Army Medical Women’s Service established to distinguish between full-time military Voluntary Aids and those attached on a voluntary basis to the aid organisations

1946: Served in Japan with the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF)

July 1949: AAMWS approved to become part of the Regular Army

February 1951: Australian Army Medical Women’s Service was disbanded and incorporated into the Royal Australian Army Nursing Corps

Sources:

• Australian Women at War p. 194 and From Blue to Khaki p. 50
• https://www.womenaustralia.info/biogs/AWE0415b.htm

Australian Women’s Army Service (AWAS) (1941 – 1947)

From: 13 August 1941 To: 30 June 1947

Summary

The Australian Women’s Army Service (AWAS) was established on 13 August 1941, to release men from certain military duties for service with fighting units. The Service recruited women between the ages of 18 and 45 and they served in a variety of roles including clerks, typists, cooks and drivers. In 1945 a contingent was sent to Lae and a small group went to Holland. In June 1947, owing to the end of World War II, the AWAS was disbanded.

Details

On 13 August 1941 the War Cabinet of the Australian Government gave approval for the Formation and Control of an Australian Army Women’s Service to release men from military duties for employment with fighting units. The name was later changed to Australian Women’s Army Service (AWAS).

From the time of the appointment of the Controller AWAS on 29 September 1941, until cessation of hostilities in August 1945, 24,026 women enlisted as volunteers in the Service.

Hitherto there had been no women accepted by the Army except those in the Medical Services and the potentialities of women in other trades and professions had not been utilised. In addition, as the Service expanded women with no particular qualifications, apart from general intelligence were used in various occupations where willingness to serve and general adaptability were the main requirements.

The first 29 officers were a representative selection of Australian women appointed after many women had been interviewed in each State. It was considered essential that those selected for the first officers appointments should have proved themselves as leaders in their own trade or profession or in some form of community service. They were expected to have qualities of enthusiasm and confidence in the contribution which women could take to the Army, balance and dependability in carrying through a task, consideration for the requirements and needs of other women, and most importantly, tact and patience necessary for pioneering a new organisation.

The first Officer’s Training School was held in Victoria in November-December 1941. During this time Japan entered the war and the need for womanpower in the Army was accentuated, recruiting and training commenced as soon as AWAS Officers returned to their areas. The types of recruits were quite splendid, alert, responsible and invariably inspired to volunteer by strong personal motives.

Initially the Army only envisaged that women would be employed as clerks, typists, cooks and motor transport drivers, and in small numbers, however, the demand grew very quickly and by the end of 1942 12,000 recruits had been enlisted and trained.

While at first AWAS were posted only to Headquarters, and Base Installations, they later took up duty, after specialist training in almost all Army Services. It is of interest to note that 3,618 served with the Royal Australian Artillery and they manned the Fixed Defences of Australia from Hobart in the South and Cairns in the North, and Perth in the West. And again 3,600 served in the Australian Corps of Signals, where they proved themselves well adapted for the type of work required of them.

Officers and other ranks of the Australian Intelligence Corps were commended for highly secret work. Motor transport drivers had truly varied lives driving cars, ambulances, trucks (up to 3 tons), jeeps, floating jeeps, Bren Gun Carriers, amphibious vehicles and driving convoys in all weathers. Australian Army Ordnance Corps employed 2,600 on a variety of tasks, some requiring a high degree of skill and all a marked degree of patience and perseverance. While quite unusual and somewhat trying work was carried out at the Proof and Experimental Range. Cooks, caterers and canteen workers were just as important as skilled Cipher clerks. There were several butchers in the AWAS.

In 1945 War Cabinet gave special approval for 500 AWAS to serve outside Australia. These members were posted to HQ 1st Aust. Army in New Guinea, 350 were selected and sailed on the MV Duntroon in May 1945.

In 1946, 1 Officer, 3 NCO’s, and 1 Private AWAS were included in the Army quota of 160 personnel in the Victory March contingent for London June 1946.

During 5 ½ years AWAS served throughout Australia from Darwin to Hobart, in populous parts and in some very lonely places. Each one according to her character and talents served Australia faithfully and well.

The Service was disbanded in June 1947.

AWAS Units

Recruiting Depots in all areas.
71 AWAS Barracks.
Administrative Cadre for Welfare Officers.
Training Schools – LHQ Officers Schools – 25 Courses.
NCOs Schools, AWAS Recruit Training Battalions & Coys.
P & RT Schools, Supervisory Personnel School.
These training units later became Army Women’s Services school and trained AWAS and Australian Army Medical Women’s Service (AAMWS).
Recreation Centres 4 (1 Northern Territory, 3 Queensland)

AWAS first served on HQs and Base Installations and in the second half of 1942, employment was extended generally and covered Units as follows:-
HQ 1st & 2nd Aust. Army, HQ 2nd & 3rd Aust Corps.
HQ 8th Aust. Div., HQ Lae Base Sub-Area, Camp Staffs.
Artillery, Engineers, Survey, Signals, Infantry, Intelligence, Supply & Transport, Ordnance, AEME, Pay, Veterinary, Postal, Provost, Printing & Stationary, Canteens, Amenities, Education, Schools including RMC, Aust. Staff College & Training Units; Salvage.

AWAS worked as Drivers in Car Coys, and regimental establishments. Drove cars, 3 ton trucks, Jeeps, Brenguin Carriers, amphibious vehicles, ambulances and attended to the maintenance of vehicles.

They worked in watercraft workshops and in AEME repair shops: all duties connected with Signals, in the Broadcasting Unit, in Entertainment Unit, photographic unit, in Field Trail Coys. They manned A/A guns and Searchlights and they worked as hairdressers (women only), as mess and kitchen staff including several butchers and as interpreters.
Officers were appointed to staff duties as follows:

• AAG (Women’s Services),
• Director of Military Training,
• Signal Officer in Chief,
• Chaplain’s Department,
• Director of Education,
• Director Public Relations,
• Director of Amenities,
• Director of Rehabilitation,
• In Quartering,
• Military Intelligence,
• Psychology and as ADC to a GOC.

Special duties were performed by an Anthropologist, a linguist, a Veterinary Surgeon, a sculptress; also as guards for Italian female internees in hospital and assisted in courts and in one mental home during an emergency.

Several ADCs were appointed from time to time for duty with the Colonel-in-Chief of AWAS.
This office was accepted by the wife of the Governor-General and was held in turn by:
Her Excellency The Lady Gowrie
Her Excellency Lady Dugan
Her Royal Highness The Duchess of Gloucester.

AWAS in RAA numbered 3,618 in Fixed Defence
AWAS in Signals numbered 3,600

Sources:

• https://www.womenaustralia.info/biogs/IMP0149b.htm

Local Women in the Australian Army

Women’s Royal Australian Naval Service (WRANS) (1941 – 1984)

From: April 1941 To: 1984

Occupations:  Armed services organisation

Summary

The Women’s Royal Australian Naval Service (WRANS) was established in April 1941 when the Royal Australian Navy enrolled 14 women at HMAS Harman, the wireless telegraphy station near Canberra. It was a non-combat branch of the Royal Australian Navy that, like many of its sister services created during the Second World War, alleviated manpower shortages resulting from men being assigned to combat roles.

The Service was temporarily disbanded in 1948, but was re-formed in 1951 to help the RAN cope with manpower shortages. By 1959 the organisation was incorporated as a non-combatant (and thus non-seagoing) part of the permanent naval forces.

Women were permitted to serve aboard Australian naval ships in 1983, which meant that WRANS personnel were fully integrated into the Royal Australian Navy. This being the case, 1984 the WRANS was permanently disbanded.

Details

The Women’s Royal Australian Naval Service (WRANS) was initially established with 14 females trained by Florence McKenzie as wireless telegraphists. The Royal Australian Navy enrolled the first 14 girls in April 1941 at HMAS Harman Wireless Telegraphy station. Later on 1 October 1942 they were sworn into the Navy as enlisted personnel with enlisted status. This is regarded as the formal foundation date for the organisation.

Four months later the number was increased to 1000.

Patsy Adam-Smith, author of Australian Women at War, states that the service never exceeded 3000 women enlisted at one time. In the WRANS women worked as telegraphists; coders; writers (typists and clerks); transport drivers; car drivers; office orderlies; dental mechanics; cooks; sickberth attendants; stewardesses; press relations officers (which included escorting the press to sea on trials); boarding officers; almoners; dome teacher operators (visual aids used for instruction and entertainment); education officers; vocational guidance; sea transport officers; and air liaison officers (moving RAN officers and ratings to all parts of the globe). There were harbour messengers; an accountant officer; supply assistants; medical, clothing and general stores; a postmaster; a postal clerk (delivering mail to ships in port and on anchor); and watch keepers. There were WRANS working as Translation Interpreters in the Allied Translation Section of General MacArthur’s main ‘Order of Battle’. Some worked on the degaussing range (assessing the magnetic attraction of vessels as they crossed the degaussing range); they worked in ciphers; visual signalling; signals and communications; radio telegraphy plotting; and as messengers. Others were with the Radar Counter-measure, Allied Intelligence Bureau and Censorship Officers. They were at the Gunnery School, small arms range. One job was to handle all Safe Hand Mail for the port of Sydney, while another was to correct and issue charts to both merchant and naval ship’s masters. There was an Assistant to the Staff Officer (Operations) Brisbane and another to the Director of Victualling.

Many WRANS were engaged on technical duties of a secret nature, working long hours under exacting conditions. For many, this meant absolute silence about their work, even after demobilisation, while the end of the war meant that others were released from secrecy. While the most senior men were adamant that WRANS would not work as mechanics, they did indeed work in ordnance artificers’ workshops. Several women wore WRANS uniform merely for convenience or safety against the event of their being discovered and, as a civilian, being treated as a spy.

The last wartime WRAN was discharged in 1948 when the WRANS were disbanded, but the service was reconstituted in 1951. By 1959 the WRANS were part of the Permanent Naval Forces, but Government policy of the day was that servicewomen not be employed in combat duties, and members of the WRANS were excluded from seagoing employment.

In 1985 women became fully integrated into the Royal Australian Navy and the WRANS were disbanded by an Act of Parliament.

Sources:

• https://www.womenaustralia.info/biogs/AWE0387b.htm

Local Women in the Royal Australian Navy

Women’s Auxiliary Australian Air Force (WAAAF) (1941 – 1947)

From:  March 1941 To: December 1947

Occupations: Armed services organization

War Cabinet approved the following musterings open to WAAAF:

Telegraphists; cook’s assistant; cook; fabric worker; dental orderly; meteorological assistant; photographer; cipher assistant; fabric worker’s assistant; clerk (general); signals; armament assistant; armourer; shoemaker; electrician; wireless assistant; hygiene inspector; fitter; wireless maintenance mechanic; radar mechanic; clerk; storekeeper; stores’ clerk; tailor; office orderly; draughtsman; instrument repairer; caterer; postal clerk; canteen steward; librarian; aircraft hand; trainee technician; cinema operator; flight mechanic; laboratory assistant; recorder; instrument maker; accounts assistant; education assistant; steward; teleprinter operator; pay clerk; sick quarters attendant; telephone operator; X-ray technician; radar operator; nursing orderly; equipment assistant; tracer; radio telephone operator; postal assistant; anti-gas instructor; dental mechanic; flight rigger; ass. medical orderly; hairdresser; medical clerk; medical assistant; linguist

Summary

The Women’s Auxiliary Australian Air Force (WAAAF) was formed in March 1941 after considerable lobbying by women keen to serve and by the Chief of the Air Staff who wanted to release male personnel serving in Australia for service overseas. The WAAAF was the first and largest of the World War II Australian Women’s Services. It was disbanded in December 1947.

Details

During the early years of World War II the necessity to make use of women in many new avenues of employment became apparent. Despite resistance from some members of the War Cabinet, bureaucrats and the Service, in February 1941 the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) received approval to create the Women’s Auxiliary Australian Air Force (WAAAF). Wireless telegraphists were urgently needed to assist in meeting a temporary deficiency of male wireless telegraphists.

A senior WAAAF officer was appointed from 24 February 1941 with more appointed from 10 March 1941 and a WAAAF Training Depot was established at Malvern, Melbourne. Recruiting commenced on 15 March 1941 and on 17 March the first nineteen airwomen reported at the Training Depot, ten of them being teleprinter operator trainees.

Although recruiting continued it was officially slowed down until Japan entered the war in December 1941. Following this event, the three Defence Services recommended the greater employment of women in order to release men for operational duties. By the end of 1941 some 1500 were serving. This number grew to a peak strength of 18,667 officers and airwomen by October 1944. They served in all states of Australia, from Cairns in Northern Queensland to Geraldton in Western Australia.

Airwomen were accepted into 73 different musterings (trades), including highly skilled technical employment on aircraft. In addition to telegraphists, women became armament workers, electricians, fitters, flight mechanics, fabricworkers, instrument makers and meteorological assistants, besides using skills in many clerical, medical, transport, catering, equipment, signals and radar fields of employment. Over 700 women held commissioned rank and like airwomen, worked in a great variety of administrative, technical and professional tasks. A number commanded units in operations rooms, at General Douglas MacArthur’s Headquarters in Brisbane dealing with intelligence matters, at Operational Units, in RAAF Hospitals, Aircraft Depots, Radar Stations, RAAF Bases – wherever they were needed, they served.

Airwomen were paid two-thirds of RAAF male pay for equivalent positions. The officers were paid a good deal less than male officers of equal rank.

Although members were enrolled when the service was first formed, the Women’s Auxiliary Australian Air Force was constituted as a part of the Permanent Air Force by the Air Force (Women’s Services) Regulations (Statutory Rules 1943, No. 69) which came into operation on 24 March 1943. In due course members were given the choice of signing a form of enlistment or attestation in which they volunteered for the duration of the war and twelve months thereafter or returning to civilian life. Very few resigned. Every WAAAF, like the men of the RAAF, was a volunteer.

Listed at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra are the names of 57 WAAAF who died while serving.

Approximately 27000 women saw service in the WAAAF between March 1941 and July 1947 when the last member was discharged from the Force. They proved, together with the women of the Navy and Army and those who worked in munitions factories, the aircraft

manufacturing industry, on the land and in all areas where women had been manpowered to replace men, that women could fulfil tasks and roles previously undertaken solely by men.

Group Officer Clare Grant Stevenson was appointed Director of the WAAAF with effect from 9 June 1941 and retired from the Service on 18 March 1946. Her unsparing efforts, in helping to weld the WAAAF into an effective component of the RAAF, were an inspiration to all members. Lady Gowrie, wife of the Governor-General, was the first Honorary Air Commandant of the WAAAF and was followed by Her Royal Highness the Duchess of Gloucester.

The WAAAF was the first Women’s Service to be formed in Australia (excluding the Nursing Services) and members were greatly disappointed that, other than several official visits made by a few to New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Northern Territory, they were not permitted to serve outside Australia.

The value of the work and the skills of the WAAAF during a period when thousands of men needed to be released for operational duty overseas and Australia itself was at risk, encouraged the formation of the Women’s Royal Australian Air Force (WRAAF) in 1951. This branch of the RAAF was disbanded in 1977 when its members became an integral part of the RAAF.

Sources:

• https://www.womenaustralia.info/biogs/AWE0400b.htm#related

Women’s Royal Australian Air Force (WRAAF) (1950 – 1977)

From: July 1950 To: 1977

Summary

The Women’s Auxiliary Australian Air Force (WAAAF) was formed in March 1941 after considerable lobbying by women keen to serve and by the Chief of the Air Staff who wanted to release male personnel serving in Australia for service overseas. The WAAAF was the largest of the Second World War women’s services. It was disbanded in December 1947.

A new Australian women’s air force was formed in July 1950 and in November became the Women’s Royal Australian Air Force (WRAAF). The WRAAF was disbanded in 1977 and female personnel were absorbed into the mainstream RAAF. Australia’s first female air force pilots graduated in 1988 and today, with the exception of the airfield defence units, there are few jobs within the RAAF barred to women

Sources:

• https://www.awm.gov.au/learn/understanding-military-structure/raaf/waaaf
• https://www.womenaustralia.info/biogs/AWE0401b.htm

Local Women in the Royal Australian Air Force

Australian Women’s Land Army (AWLA) (1942 – 1945)

From: 27 July 1942 To: 31 December 1945

Occupations: Services organization

Summary

On 27 July 1942, the Australian Women’s Land Army (AWLA) was established as a national organisation, reporting to the Director-General of Manpower. The aim of the AWLA was to replace the male farm workers who had either enlisted in the armed services or were working in other essential war work such as munitions. The AWLA was not an enlisted service, but rather a voluntary group whose members were paid by the farmer, rather than the government or military forces. Membership of the AWLA was open to women who were British subjects and between the ages of 18 and 50 years. Housed in hostels in farming areas, members were given formal farming instruction and were initially supplied with uniform, bedding etc. Members were not engaged in domestic work rather they undertook most types of work involved with primary industries. The organisation was to be formally constituted under the National Security Regulations, but a final draft of the National Security (Australian Women’s Land Army) Regulations was not completed until 1945, and did not reach the stage of promulgation due to cessation of hostilities and the decision to demobilize the Land Army.

A ‘Land Army’ was established in each state and administered that state’s rural needs, though some members were sent interstate when available. In September 1945 it was decided that complete demobilization of the Australian Women’s Land Army would take effect not later than 31 December 1945.

They worked in all types of rural work: in the fruit, vegetable, dairying, flax, tobacco and cotton industries. In mixed farming, in poultry raising and in pastoral industries.  In addition a few members worked in associated industries such as fruit packing and grading, and wool classing.  A number were certified herd testers.  On their shoulders lay the responsibility of feeding the navy, army and air force and civilians of Australia and the US Servicemen. They worked from the cotton fields of Queensland to the apple orchards of Tasmania.

From an attitude of skepticism, the farming community passed, wherever farms had experience of Land Army girls, to one of praise and respect. The Land Girl was capable and willing to do any of the duties required.  These included root picking, milking, feeding 100 pigs, tractor driving, attending sheep (mustering, yarding, etc.), killing and skinning sheep for rations, chaff-cutting and corn-crushing.

By December 1945, the last of the great army of girls (3068 at the peak) who travelled their homeland helping to feed their own forces and that of the USA was demobilized, and three years of hard, largely unsung service to their country ended.

Sources:

• https://www.womenaustralia.info/biogs/AWE0393b.htm
• Adam-Smith, Patsy Australian Women at War Thomas Nelson Melbourne, 1984.